in Toyin Falola (ed), Ghana in Africa and
the World: Essays in Honor of Adu Boahen,
Africa World Press,
New Jersey, 2003
MAIN SITE: WWW.AFRICAHISTORY.NET
Introduction
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and Science
There are intersections between mainstream science and IK. At the core of
mainstream science is the desire to negotiate nature through sequential
processes such as hypothesis formulation, experiment and prediction. The process
of discovery may be intuitive, accidental, conjectural or inspirational but
outcomes are generally predictable and repeatable although some scholars argue
that the general thrust of mainstream science is to explain regularity and to
deliberately exclude the unique and intractable. Knowledge production in
mainstream science includes phases of experimentation through trial and error or
otherwise. But there are some areas of non-convergence as well between IK and
mainstream science. IK seems to be relatively less transferable than
conventional science, given its holistic socio-cultural and even spiritual
dimensions. IK appears to be largely communitarian in terms of discovery and
experimentation and the mode of transmission and sharing is often collective
rather than individualistic. Embedded in the products and services associated
with IK are proprietary systems which are often more flexible and negotiable
than its western counterpart in some cases and non-existent in others. The
engine of growth and sustenance is neither the market nor the profit motive nor
is it prone to large-scale mass production and economies of scale. IKS provides
excellent examples of community based and community biased research. Its
weakness lies in its close reliance and over dependence on demographic stability
and morality. The community is a source of strength for IK in terms of the
discovery process and knowledge production. For methodological pluralists such
as Paul Feyerabend, by implication, IK is science because it functions. For some
'unified theorists' who believe in the concept of a single science, IK may
probably be construed as scientific in the light of some of the common features
associated with the enterprise. One perspective suggests that IK should be
integrated into the mainstream whilst another implies that IK is science -
separate from the mainstream but equal.
African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIK) : Goals and Outcomes
Resolving theoretical and conceptual issues about the identity of African
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIK) is in fact one of the many challenges
confronting African philosophers, historians, anthropologists and educators.
There are numerous other theoretical and methodological puzzles, most of which
would best be resolved in structured discussions within an institutional
framework, in the context of a planned curriculum and formalized discourse.
European philosophers of science from Popper to Lakatos, and Kuhn to Feyerabend
have spent an inordinate amount of time discussing the nature of rationality,
objectivity and problem solving in mainstream science. We need to do the same
for AIK, rejecting, accepting, modifying or adapting relevant conceptual baggage
in the field and creating entirely new constructs of analysis for understanding
the phenomenon where necessary.
The need for the inclusion of AIK in the curriculum goes beyond the above
issue, however, no matter how significant the latter objective may be. There are
psychological, intellectual, and economic reasons, which basically stem from the
mode of evolution of the historical process in the continent, as well as the
structures of intellectual dominance and dependence associated with colonial and
postcolonial hierarchies and power elites. We have elsewhere identified several
strategies of disinformation embedded in euro centric colonial and post-colonial
education, including the selective omission of non- European achievements,
inventions and technologies; the distortion of data; surreptitious naming; and
several other strategies of colonization and recolonization. The recognition and
appreciation of IKS is a source of healing of therapeutic import in the context
of unhealthy imbalances, distortion, trivialization and neglect as inflicted by
the eurocentric education and governance. Tapping into the intellectual
resources associated with IK is not only cost effective but also relevant and
indispensable for environmentally and ecologically sensitive activity.
It is at the level of economic sustainability, self-reliance and cost
effectiveness, however, that AIK continues to prove its viability and strength.
The most vibrant sectors of African economies at this present time are the
informal sectors, sometimes referred to as the second economy. In some cases
over 50% of total economic growth takes place in this arena of small-scale
producers, manufacturers and bankers. Specialists and technical operatives
include metallurgists, textile manufacturers and food processors. The
interesting issue here is that many of the agents and agencies associated with
the second economy tap into the accumulated skills and expertise and indigenous
knowledge systems from traditional Africa.
The fact is that Africa in the 20th century was afflicted by 2 major
externally derived economic models of exploitation, namely, the colonial model
of exploitation and neo-colonial models aimed at recolonization. The economic
and epistemological or knowledge oriented aspects of those models were aimed at
exploitation and mal-development. Built into those models were negative and
unwholesome presuppositions about race, gender and segregationist policies and
discriminatory modes of allocation of space, resources and infrastructure
prevailed. Export- oriented growth, monoculture and outward-bound programs for
the export of first stage mineral and agricultural extraction were the dominant
trends in most parts of the continent.
The survival of the informal sector took place against the odds. Its survival
is a testimony to the strong capacity for resilience and growth of AIK which
invariably persists not only at the level of material culture and the natural
environment but, also fields such as business management, banking and
hospitality or service. Jeffrey Fadiman points out in South Africa's Black
Market (2000) that African business methods include a people- centered approach
which places people above the product. In a reversal of western business
strategy, personal relationships precedes product presentation. He identifies
indigenous management strategies which are the result of indigenous commercial
value systems and ethics 'refined' over several millennia. Fadiman's text is
geared for the business traveler from the West but it is an excellent
springboard for in-depth research into IK at the level of management and
business administration.
The entrenchment within the curriculum and the educational milieu of
structures for the critical evaluation, understanding and revitalization of AIK
must necessarily be an important challenge for 21st century policy makers and
educators. The end result could be the consolidation of self-sustaining networks
of local researchers, democratically engaged in research and compatible with
community values, aspirations and goals. It could also establish a pathway
towards the consolidation of democratic forms of knowledge production if done
within the framework of openness and empathetic critical research. Research that
matters in this context would also include discussions about intellectual
property rights and the nature of compensation for indigenous knowledge workers
and experts. At the moment institutional science is taught in the context of a
eurocentric paradigm which carries along with it disdain, disrespect and
arrogance. It is hoped that respect, humility and openness would be some of the
values permeating the new curriculum.
The Curriculum and AIK
Whether one views the curriculum as an academic plan, a map or a sequence of
steps, the reality is that theoretically speaking there are various models to
choose from. We shall discuss two of these and reflect on the implications for
teaching and learning strategies, content, evaluation and anticipated outcomes
with respect to Africa's IK. The two selected models, models 'A' and 'B' do not
constitute all possible approaches to the curriculum but they seem to be amongst
the most dominant. The first model implies that knowledge consists of an
independent body of facts that can be assimilated and transmitted through a good
teacher and by means of thorough coverage of specific textbooks. Students are
effectively assessed by occasional exams, which may be objective tests or
essays. This particular model is generally teacher- centered and the instructor
is a major actor in the learning process. The content is generally logically
arranged in a sequence of units. Educational content may be identified with
specific disciplines in this teacher- centered and subject- based model. It is
quite feasible though to have variations of the model, which utilize student,
centered learning strategies within the context of core areas of study. Use of
the Library Media Center may be relatively restricted in this approach given the
emphasis on one or two textbooks identified by the teacher as exemplary. To
teach AIK in this classroom environment entails the discovery of one or two
outstanding texts which would have incorporated identified core areas. At its
worst the textbooks, if eurocentric, place the entire enterprise at risk -
through insinuation, ridicule and negative representations aimed at perpetuating
euro-american superiority and triumphalism. In this case, both teacher and
student may be hostages to text. At its best, however, the student emerges
informed although not necessarily critically aware of societal improprieties and
prevailing power relations.
In the case of the more critically engaged model, however, the focus is
socially oriented. Students are encouraged and trained to challenge existing
relations of power and domination in terms of a transformative epistemology.
Awareness of societal ills at local and global levels preoccupies discourse, and
the curriculum is viewed as an instrument of empowerment. Consciousness raising
and so too the development of social awareness become part of the mission of the
curriculum and curriculum planning. With this model the use of the library media
center is extensive. Learning and teaching strategies are decisively student
centered. There is a greater range of methodological experimentation and more
willingness to utilize student centered resources. This model also aims at
developing the mind and the intellect in the context of rigorous intellectual
activity and community-oriented research. Its implications for indigenous
knowledge are manifested in affective, cognitive and methodological approaches
including a more experimental use of instructional resources. There is a keen
awareness that knowledge production is socially derived and that relations of
domination and oppression could affect content. Evaluation in the context of
this approach is not associated with objective tests and the like but rather
with measuring attitudes and social consciousness and as pointed out by Susan
Toohey, this is sometimes negotiable through dialogue. For the first approach
AIK may be structured along the lines of conventional disciplines. In the second
a more decidedly problem oriented approach is undertaken. The concept of praxis
is a prominent item on the agenda and so too are community - based projects. For
the first model the structure of knowledge is logical. For the other its basis
is social.
Oral Tradition and AIK
The most significant information gathering exercise for AIK is Oral
Tradition, namely, the collective testimonies and recollections of the past
inherited from earlier generations, and transmitted in various forms of verbal
testimonies. Orally transmitted information inherited from past generations may
be shared in both structured and unstructured contexts. It constitutes a major
resource and has been classified by many different scholars. Vansina's
thoughtful classification is still handy. His five categories of Oral Tradition
include formulae embedded in slogans, ceremonial or spiritually derived
language, poetry, leadership lists of reigning monarchs, narratives or tales and
commentaries. Narratives may be historical, instructive, artistic or personal
and commentaries legal or non-legal Needless to say that 27 types of Yoruba
poetry have been identified by one researcher including poetry for wedding
ceremonies, for relaxation and entertainment, for funerals of well known
personalities, and poetry for the 'Orisa' of wisdom, IFA.
The most relevant kind of poetry for indigenous knowledge research of the
kind emphasized in this paper seems to be praise poems, poetic invocations for
traditional healing, and poetry expressing deep thought and philosophy. To tap
the resources associated with Akan Oral Tradition one must understand and
identify the various specialists associated with the enterprise such as
minstrels, masters of ceremony, royal drummers, royal horn blowers, spokesmen of
the king, the funerary priests of the king, the king's carrier, the female soul
bearers, the masters of ceremony to the divinities, and various court
functionaries and administrators.
There are important ground rules for researchers into indigenous knowledge
systems who utilize Oral Tradition. At a preliminary stage, researchers must be
fully sensitive to the status of the provider of information, his or her stake
in the system and the various versions of the traditional explanation given.
Preliminary questions should be asked about the ethnic identity of the group or
community associated with the orally shared information. There should be a clear
understanding of whether or not the orally transmitted information is myth,
legend, proverb, chant , praise song or of unidentified or unidentifiable
origin. The researcher should determine whether the information has relevance
for researching genealogy, traditions of origin, migration patterns, settlement
patterns, biography , spiritual and religious trends, medical techniques, food
processing, textile, building, botanical or other methodologies, general
lifestyle or otherwise. Particular attention must be placed on time- specific
references such as natural disasters, eclipses or contemporaneous events.
Ambivalent concepts must be identified and so, too, distortions, if any, in the
translation process. Gender, racial or private biases must be recognized, and
so, too, the extent to which such biases are associated with the community, the
presenter or the translator of the oral document. The nature of transmission of
the document is significant because court historians tend to interpret
differently from unofficial griots or institutions such as specialized training
schools. If the data is associated with collective memory, one should be aware
of that.
Instructional Resources and AIK
No longer is the library primarily a depository of books nor the librarian
mainly a caretaker and custodian. The profession is in a stage of great
transformation. According to Carol Kearney, the librarian of old is being
transformed into a curriculum planner and a media specialist, significant in the
use of a wide range of resources such as computer generated programs and a wide
range of internet derived resources including virtual museums, virtual
laboratories and even virtual libraries. Audiotapes retain their appeal and so
do more conventional resources. Given the importance of Oral Tradition both in
research methodology and in information gathering, the audio tape probably
remains the most important resource of all. It is cheaper and less intimidating
than the camcorder and some other newer technologies, and the concept of
depositing finished tapes in the library media center is not difficult to
implement and sustain. The onus of any African Indigenous Knowledge Center is to
extensively document, before it is too late, a variety of accumulated
experiences from African regions near and far, obscure or obvious. Colonial
espionage provided a series of anthropologically based intelligence reports. The
newly independent states of Africa must now engage in this exercise for the
right reasons and collaborate with their predecessors in the construction of
databases of all types. This must be done in the context of knowledge
accumulation and consolidation, problem solving and community enrichment.
The role of the library media center in curriculum planning is related not
only to instructional material but also teaching and learning strategies such as
discussions, debates, symposia, interviews and tutorials. The participatory
atmosphere generated by such activities is quite compatible with the spirit and
content of IK. A fundamental assumption here is that the classroom teacher at
various levels must collaborate with the Library Media Center in identifying
needs, devising instructional content and by providing learning experiences. In
fact Urbank sees the teamwork between the two professionals in terms of three
possibilities, namely,' the teacher planned approach', 'the librarian planned
approach' and ' the unified team approach'. In the ideal situation the library
consultant is aware of the teaching goals, content to be taught, and teaching
and learning strategies to be implemented. It is obvious that the librarian must
therefore be generously rewarded and given appropriate financial and other
incentives.
In the current era of IMF / World Bank structural adjustment impositions and
debt repayment there are serious financial constraints. We are aware also of the
impact of these programs on the funding of educational institutions and library
systems and therefore the search for excellence is also a search for affordable
resources whether at the level of instruction or resource management. Because
AIK research is largely community based a major investment in the enterprise is
the well being, health and survival of the most valuable resource of all,
people. This is all the more why the current AIDS pandemic is tragic. On a
positive note, though, observe that indigenous systems of knowledge production
facilitated the discovery of the healing properties of the African willow (South
Africa) and the hoodia plant (Namibia) and iboga (Gabon and Cameroon),
botanicals which are about to revolutionize the Western medical establishment in
terms of cancer treatment, dietary care and anti-addictive therapy,
respectively. In the case of the potential cancer cure, the principle at stake
is the interruption of the flow of blood to the cancers in patients and not to
the healthy tissue. The traditional doctors who brought this herbal, 'combrettum
caffrum' to the attention of Dr. Bob Pettit of Arizona State University did not
use the herbal for cancer treatment but they were certainly aware of its
scientific significance in health care. It is not inconceivable that a benign
cure for AIDS could emerge from the resource base of AIK. If AIDS does not exist
there must be something killing the people in such large numbers and that
entity, whatever its name, must be destroyed. If AIDS is the product of
biological warfare and genetic engineering and deliberately infected monkeys in
the wild, the challenge is all the more greater for us as researchers,
educators, scientists and healers. Burying one's head in the sand to ward off
disaster is not a credible strategy for coping with tragedy.
Curriculum planning must always take into consideration existing power
relations and the multiple centers of power involved in the process of
decision-making and implementation. Political support has to be obtained for the
adoption and implementation of the curriculum in terms of local students,
faculty, library personnel, deans and unit heads no less than the wider agencies
associated with the government such as regional administrators and equally
important the mass media. Vested interest groups, which abhor the
democratization of knowledge and hope to maintain their positions of dominance,
would have to be confronted, persuaded or outwitted if the plans were to be
implemented. b
In this segment of the paper we utilize ideas from the two approaches to
curriculum discussed in the first part of the paper. We provide some specific
instructional guidelines on content and research and make suggestions about
selected bibliographic and multimedia resources of relevance for classroom
teaching and the library media center. We also reflect on curriculum objectives
and outcomes and teaching and learning strategies. Some comments are made on
evaluation and implementation. Content analysis includes discussions on
Medicine, Mathematics, Food Processing, Metallurgy and Building Technology.
Section A contains a revised version of an earlier discourse included in Douglas
Allchin and Robert Dekosky (eds) Introduction to the History of Science in
Non-Western Traditions, History of Science Society, Washington, 1999.
A.
Medicine
African Traditional Medicine (ATM) is holistic and attempts to go beyond the
boundaries of the physical body into the spiritual. This is in contrast to
bio-medicine which views the body mechanistically in terms of individual parts,
and is derived from the germ theory of disease, ATM can be categorized as
mind-body medicine. Some common medical principles have emerged over time in
various African regions. These include several scientifically proven techniques
and strategies, some of which are culturally specific and of psychological
importance. Among the common principles and procedures utilized in African
Traditional Medicine (ATM) are hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation,
quarantine, bone-setting and surgery. Incantations and other devices of psycho
-therapeutic dimension are often applied.. Western based pharmaceutical
companies often send agents to tap the knowledge of traditional African
pharmacologists.. Treatment for cancer, obesity, drug addiction , diabetes and
other ailments have benefited directly and indirectly from from traditional
African pharmacologists through plants such as the African willow (South
Africa), the hoodia plant (Namibia), iboga (Gabon and Cameroon) and other
botanicals. T. Carlson (2002) acknowledged that Shaman Pharmaceuticals
collaborated with 58 traditional doctors from 7 provinces and 42 communities in
Guinea, West Africa, between 1994 and 1998. As a result of this collaborative
venture 145 plant species were identified as useful for the treatment of type 2
diabetes mellitus.
The naming of major vessels and detailed knowledge of neuro-anatomy and
neurological symptoms emerged in some areas, including ancient Northeast
Africa.. There is evidence of the use of pills, enemas, suppositories, infusions
and elixirs for dispensing prescriptions. We have evidence of experimental
medicine in surgery, orthopedics, gynaecology, and pharmacology. Surgery has
included male and female circumcision, brain surgery and the excision of tumors.
The alignment of dislocated bones and the treatment of collarbone fractures have
been documented. Pregnancy diagnosis through the use of urine samples and the
use of spermicides as well as the removal of the ovaries have also been noted in
some areas. Anesthetics were derived from plants identified to have pain killing
capabilities. Some areas have become well known for certain types of medical
expertise as is the case of Funtua in Northern Nigeria for orthopedics. Many of
the traditional techniques are still utilized in some areas. Some have undergone
change over time. Others have been revived in more recent periods or have fallen
into oblivion. The World Health Organization has recognized the contributions of
traditional medicine to psychiatry.
Suggested Readings:
T. Carlson et al. 'Case study of Medicinal Plant Research in Guinea,'
Economic Botany, vol.55. 4. 2001 (Publication date Feb.2002) Indigenous fermented foods in Africa have usually been derived from cassava
tubers, cereal legumes, oil seeds, palm tree sap, milk and various other local
products. Richard Okagbue (1997) has pointed out that 'the scientific basis of
indigenous food fermentation lies in the nature of the micro-organisms involved
in fermentation, and microbially induced change of the base product; the nature
of the enzymatic reactions which take place; and the specific nature of the
end-product in terms of nutritional and preservative qualities'.
A scientific process should be repeatable and open to scrutiny in such a way
as to facilitate evaluation and perhaps farther experimentation and research.
Common to various parts of the continent have been de-hydrated granular food
products which involved fermentation, frying and dejuicing; or products such as
sorghum, maize, or other cereal fermented and made into alcoholic beverages.
Food processors became aware of the significance of the various agencies by
virtue of trail and error experimentation. Metallic objects were sometimes used
to hasten fermentation and in this case serve as trace elements, thus promoting
the growth of the relevant micro-organisms, according to Okagbue.
African civilization may be associated with specific methods of preparing and
even consuming food items in ways which reflect some measure of relative
uniformity throughout the continent. Fast food items ranging from couscous to
"gari" or cassava granules; various types of cereal-based flour, pulverized
tubers of various kinds and a wide variety of vegetable-based soups have given
African culinary traditions a distinct character which may also be discussed in
discussions on micro-biology and food processing. It has to be stressed that
food preparation involves hypothesis formulation; the assumption of regularity
in nature and a measure of logical consistency in thought in such a way as to
facilitate repeatable and predictive capability on the part of the food
processor or agent associated with food preparation.
This seems to be one of the under-researched issues in need of collaborative
research between historians and micro-biologists; nutritionists and
sociologists. Much work in this area has been done by Dr. Richard Okagbue, a
microbiologist whose training has been of vital importance for our understanding
of African food processing. Sources of information for food processing/culinary
trends in general include:
Metallurgy
Various types of metal products have been used over time by Africans ranging
from gold, tin, silver, bronze, brass and iron/steel. The Sudanic empires of
West Africa emerged in the context of various commercial routes and activities
involving the gold trade. In the North/East Ethiopia and Nubia were the major
suppliers of gold, with Egypt being a major importer. In Southern Africa the
Kingdom of Monomotapa reigned supreme as a major gold producer. In the various
spheres of metal production specific techniques and scientific principles were
applied. These included:
Suggested Readings:
Building Technology
In various parts of ancient, medieval and contemporary Africa building
constructions of various dimensions, shapes and types emerged reflecting various
concepts, techniques and decorative principles and specific raw material
preferences as well. Builders integrated the concept of the arch, the dome, and
the use of columns and aisles in their construction. The underground vaults and
passages and rock-hewn churches of Ancient Ethiopia are matched in Nubia and
Egypt with pyramids of various dimensions. In the Sahelian region, adobe or
dried clay was preferred in the context of moulded contours at times integrated
with overall moulded sculpture. Permanent scaffolding made of protruding planks
characterized the Malian region. The principle of evaporative cooling was
integrated into the building activity. Mats were utilized as part of the décor
and also to be saturated repeatedly, to cool the room.
Derelict ruins from walled cities such as Kano and Zazzau and other city
states of Hausaland in the central Sudanic region of West Africa complement the
rock hewn churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia , the Zimbabwe ruins, and the
pyramids and temples of ancient Nubia, and Egypt. It is possible to see these
ruins through various video productions now available. The massive earthworks
and fortifications of Benin and Ijebu Ode, Western Nigeria are being
investigated by a team of archeologists including Dr. Patrick Darling. The role
of the archaeologist and the scholar of material culture must be stressed here.
Various eyewitness accounts are available including sketches by Rene Caille and
Henrich Barth. Note museum replicas at Smithsonian, Washington, DC; Boston
Museum of Fine Arts. Museum displays also include vandalized structures and
should invite discussions on the centuries of misappropriation of Africa's
historical treasures. Some of Africa's misappropriated artifacts include
Egyptian and Ethiopian obelisks and stelae in Rome, London, Washington and New
York. The Ethiopian government has been unable to retrieve one of Ethiopia's
most famous structure despite earlier promises for the return of the item which
remains in Rome. Archaeological writings of specialists in the field continue to
be useful for this topic. Eyewitness reports of various travelers are also
available in several cases.
Suggested Readings:
(1) Cognitive/Knowledge Skills
By the end of the semester, students should know:
By the end of the program students
should have acquired: 1. Critical understanding of operational and theoretical
principles of Traditional Medicine, Mathematics, Food Processing, Metallurgy and
Building Technology 2. A change in attitudes to AIK from skepticism to
confidence and pride 3. Commitment to community based research and problem
solving 4. Africa centered as opposed to eurocentric research capabilities and
methodologies 5. Respect for the intellectual property rights of practitioners
6. Commitment to community empowerment and to the social and economic well being
of the community (iii) Psychomotor skills
By the end of the program students should have developed the ability:
C. Teaching and Learning Strategies
Student centered learning is crucial in pursuing academic programs on AIK to
ensure assimilation of information and to create possibilities for meaningful
research in the communities. Problem solving in specific areas such as AIDS
research, and capacity building in terms of the preservation and processing of
food products create closer ties between the student and the communities which
stand to benefit from value added research. Problem based learning is active
learning. Some of the readings listed can be recommended for occasional essay -
based assignments. They also provide excellent background information for
lectures.
Readings, lectures, role playing, debates, mock talk shows, theatrical skits,
quizzes and class room discussions will be supplemented by audio and video tapes
where feasible. AIKS is multidisciplinary and may tap into various resources
across disciplines. One of the excellent video tapes on metallurgy is Tree of
Iron, which focuses on steel making in Tanzania. Schmidt, the researcher
involved in this project, discusses his archeological findings in his text, Iron
Making in East Africa (Indiana University Press, 1997). We need similar
productions for food processing. mathematics and medicine. Sabine Jell-Bahlsen's
video Tubali, Hausa Architecture of Northern Nigeria ( Ogbuide Corp, New York,
1994) is a useful teaching tool in terms of building technology. So too are
productions on Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe. Such resources are vitally important
acquisitions for the Library Media Center. Basil Davidson's 8-hour long
documentary Africa, A Voyage of Discovery ( Home Vision,1989) continues to be
useful for historical background on Africa's monuments and building structures
in areas such as Nubia, Egypt, the Swahili City States and Zimbabwe. He also has
relevant footage for Mali. Henry Louis Gates embarked on a similar project in
his Wonders of the African World (2000). The footage on Ethiopia is excellent
but the series as a whole is eurocentric. Students can be asked to compare the
two productions.
We urgently need to have coverage for the extensive fortifications of Benin
Iya in Nigeria; the Gwoza terraces of Northern Nigeria; and numerous ancient
structures. We have at our disposal scholarly web sites which explore some of
the visual resources. I have tried to make links to many of these on one of my
sites: www.africahistory.net
The most important resource is the orally transmitted document. Students will
be asked to do extensive interviewing of local experts in various fields
including traditional medicine and food processing. Tapes will be catalogued and
made accessible to researchers.
D. Evaluation
In the first part of the paper we examine conceptual issues associated with
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IK) including the nature of the intersection
between Science and IK. We reflect also on methodological pluralism and
knowledge production. Intellectual property rights and empowerment are also
examined. We then explore the multiple linkages between IK and the curriculum in
terms of needs, goals, teaching strategies and instructional resources of
various kinds. We reflect on anticipated outcomes and methods of evaluation. We
also discuss the role of the library media center and the library consultant in
curriculum planning with respect to IK. Our emphasis is on those components of
IK which describe, explain, predict and try to negotiate nature. In the first
section of the paper we also explore some curriculum models and approaches
relevant to our discourse and various dimensions of teaching, learning and
researching AIK through the use of 'oral traditions' and other methodologies. In
the second part of the paper we provide specific instructional guidelines on
African Traditional Medicine, Mathematics, Food Processing, Metallurgy and
Building Technology. Selected readings and multimedia resources are identified
along with current instructional and research challenges. In the course of the
paper we specify that AIK, whether institutionalized or not, structured or
unstructured, has specific implications for democratization, community
empowerment and nation building. We argue that it also has implications for
sustainable development, capacity building and intellectual development in
Africa in the 21st century.
2. Mathematics The African Mathematical
Union based in Mozambique has listed innumerable sources of information on the
history of Mathematics in Africa. Secondary writings include 20th century works
of anthropologists such as Delafosse (1928), Almeida (1947), Armstrong (1962),
Cheikh Anta Diop and more recent works. See the website archives of AMUCHMA.
Salimata Doumbia, Claudia Zaslavsky, Paulus Gerdes , Ron Eglash and Scott
Williams have identified some important developments in the field. Nigerian
mathematicians such as Chike Obi are major role models in terms of the
contemporary period. There are historically very practical explanations for the
development of Mathematics in the continent. A complex system of trade developed
in the context of the trans-Saharan trade and also trade with Asia in terms of
commodities such as gold and gold dust, kola nuts, leather items such as bags
and various types of textile. The extensive trade that developed between Great
Zimbabwe and the Swahili city states necessitated systematic calculation and
systems of measurement. In Muslim regions the calculation of heritance and the
distribution of zakat necessitated mathematical accuracy. Some indigenous
systems of calculation had 10 as a base whilst others were vigesimal such as the
Yoruba system. Distinctions were made between prime numbers and multiples which
contained other numbers. Various symbols evolved to represent various
quantities. African systems of logic have also been manifested in games and
activities of strategy such as mancala and ayo as well as games of alignment and
puzzles. Suggested Readings:
3. Food Processing
Suggested Readings:
4
The use of multishaft and
open-shaft systems facilitated the circulation of air in intense heating
processes whilst the bellows principle produced strong currents of air in the
context of an air chamber expanded to draw in air through a valve or to expel
it. Note that the various metal products were used for a wide range of purposes
including armor as in the case of some Northern Nigerian city states; gold,
silver, iron, copper and brass jewelry; currency including circular and
non-circular coins; pots and cooking utensils; cloth dyeing, sculpture and
agricultural implements. The technical know-how and expertise which blacksmiths
were associated with helped to enhance their status although they were also
often associated with supernatural and psychic powers as well. Peter Schmidt has
done extensive research on steel production in Ancient East Africa.
5.
AIK and Curriculum Objectives and Outcomes
b
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