HISTORY OF AFRICA AFRICAN HISTORY AFRICAN CIVILIZATION HISTORY OF AFRICA

History of Africa: Version 2

Dr. Gloria T.Emeagwali

Professor of History and African Studies, Central Connecticut State University.

MAIN SITE:

www.africahistory.net

GENERAL AFRICAN TIMELINE

ETHIOPIAN TIMELINE

TIMELINE OF ANCIENT NORTHEAST AFRICA

Conferences and Travels in Africa

A.

Northeast Africa is the cradle of African civilization.

Note (a) AFRICAN LEGACY,

and the significance of a range of newly discovered sites, which include:

(b)The world's oldest stone tools dated 2.6 million years.

See http://exn.ca/hominids/home (Discovery Channel)

(c)Olduvai, Northern Tanzania-second oldest in the world,

with tools dated 2.1 million years.

(d)Blombos Cave, South Africa, where, in 2003,

the world's oldest jewellery in the form

of 41 perforated shell beads, were found.

Here we have evidence of stylized

art work, as well as

the kind of symbolism and creativity that

we associate with modern humans. See South Africa museums,Cape Town

(www.museum.org.za/sam/muse/9904/htm)

(e)At Loiyangalani, Tanzania,East Africa,

in the Serengeti National Park, decorated ostrich eggshell

beads were discovered by archeologists.

They point also to early

human creativity. These were found March 2004, in layers dated between 280,000

and 40,000 years.

See www.CBC.ca/stories/2004/03/31/sci-tech/beads040331.

We must also take into account

(f)The Ishango mathematical/calendar artifact of East-Central Africa,

dated about 25,000 years.

This artifact was taken out of the Congo region to Belgium.

See the exhibit at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Belgium.

Also in this category of early mathematical artifacts is

the 37,000 year old Lebombo bone of SWAZILAND, Southern Africa.

Other relevant sites include:

(g)Rock Art in Southern Africa

(h)Africa's oldest boat has been found in Ancient Nigeria and this is about

8000 years old.

Multiregional and uniregional theories of human origins

point to Africa as the birthplace of humanity.

Several molecular biologists and paleontologists confirm this to date.

The evidence so far implies that the first humans

in the world (homo sapiens) emerged in Africa about 200,000 years ago

and migrated to the various continents much later-perhaps as recent

as 45,000 years ago, in the case of migration to Europe.

Recent fossil finds suggest that the world's

earliest hominids lived approximately 6 million years before that

in Kenya. We note also the 4 million year old fossils of Dinknesh (Lucy)

and her descendants,

and the 1996 discovery in Southern Ethiopia

of stone tools 2.6 million years old.

The Kenyan -Ethiopian- Tanzanian region is perhaps the birthplace

of modern humans, subject to new finds.

Needless to say that several religions do not accept

this view on human origins. Some Christians find it difficult to reconcile the Book of Genesis with scientific findings.

Ancient Africans migrated within Africa,

vertically and horizontally, as well as OUT OF AFRICA to populate the world.

For views on the African and Afro-Pacific (Afro-Australian) origins

of some Ancient Americans, such as the Ancient Brazilians,

see Dr.Walter Neves,University of Sao Paolo, Brazil

(BBC Homepage: Thursday August 26, 1999).

See also Spencer Wells of in his pathbreaking work, Journey of Man: The Story of the Human Species (PBS, 2003). Consult www.pbs.org.

Having emerged millions of years ago in the environs

of present day Ethiopia and Kenya, some ancient Ethiopians and Eritreans

migrated into neigboring Yemen (Saba), across the Red Sea.

Legends of the area, view the Queen of Sheba

and Ethiopia, as an Ancient Ethiopian. Biblical texts

such as 1 Kings 10, The Song of Solomon, and, Ancient Ethiopian chronicles

such as the 'Kebra Nagast' seem to support this view.

As pointed out by historians such as Stuart Munro-Hay i.Aksum was an African civilization of late Antiquity.

It was one of many centers of power to emerge

in the environs of ancient Ethiopia and Eritrea,

and, was predominantly derived from the intellectual

and material resources of ancient Africans.

The Empires and Kingdoms of

j. Nubia (Ancient Sudan -Univ. of Khartoum)

k.Arkamani, Sudan Journal of Archeology and Anthropology

l.The Ancient Horn of Africa

host a wide range of achievements in Africa, in particular,

and the ancient world, as a whole.

West Africa

and other parts of the continent,

provide artifacts, not only of iron,

tin, gold and bronze metallurgy, but also, evidence of

building technology, ceramics, maths and medicine.

The relics of these earlier technological accomplishments

are still visible for scholars.

Among the accessible monumental

testimonies to the skill and expertise of ancient Africans,

in various parts of the continent, are the following:

Northeast Africa

m.One of Several Temples, Lalibela, Ethiopia.

See alsoAksum and Rome

n.Ethiopian Temple

o.Ethiopian Slide Show (includes engineering achievements - Univ. of Pennsylvania)

p.Egypt(Univ. of Memphis)

q.Queen Hatshepsut's Expedition to the Land of Punt

(Horn of Africa)(Sayed El-Sayed)

r.Benin Iya, the Benin Enclosures and Fortifications,

West Africa, 10,000 miles in length, which, constitute

one of the largest man-made structures in the world according to

the renowned British archeologist Patrick Darling.

s.The Gwoza Terraces of NE Nigeria, West Africa

t.Great Zimbabwe

u.The Walled Cities of Zazzau & Kano, Northern Nigeria, West Africa

v.Monumental fortifications of West Africa 1000AD (wall 100 miles long x 70' high) -

commissioned by Madame Sungbo of the Ijebu Kingdom,

Yorubaland, West Africa.

w. For a discussion on the Sahelian West African regions of

Ghana/Mali/Songhai in the middle Niger and Senegal valleys,

see McIntosh

x.See also an overview of Ancient Africa(Cora Agatucci)

Note numerous metallurgical and other artifacts such as:

y.The Bronzes of Benin, Ife and Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria, West Africa

z.Indigenous Glassworks of Bida, Nupeland, Nigeria, West Africa

Metallurgical Artifacts of

a1.Mapungubwe, South Africa

a2.Africa's Oldest Boat of 8000 Years(NE Nigeria)


Ancient Terracotta Figurines of Nok, Nigeria, West Africa

a3.Ashanti Gold, West Africa (Garbrah)

a4.Akan Metal Casting (Arthur/Rowe)

a5.Various archeological data from across the continent should be noted.

    a6.Despite eurocentric strategies

    of disinformation, Africans developed knowledge systems

    of their own in the pre-colonial era. Some survived into the

    post-colonial era, despite various forms of colonial

    intimidation. In the case of writing, the use of specific

    scripts was often confined to the priestly hierarchy.

    Africans in various parts of the continent developed a wide

    range of symbols and motifs for communicating various

    ideas and concepts. The variety of writing material

    used in some parts of the continent, historically, reflects

    the complex history of Africa's writing systems which in the

    past were in scribed on materials such as parchment, papyrus,

    leather, skin, fabric, sand, clay, and metal more extensively

    in some parts of the continent than others. Among

    some of the a7.writing systems (Ayele Bekerie):

    Geez (Ethiopia),

    Meroitic (Nubia),

    Hieroglyphics (Egypt),

    Bamum(Cameroon),

    Vai (Liberia),

    Nsibidi (Nigeria/Cameroon),

    Ajimi (Nigeria/Niger)and the Adinkra pictographic system (Akan- Ghana,Ivory Coast)

    But Africans also developed a wide range of sophisticated

    systems of oral expression involving the preservation and

    transmission of information in oral format.In some

    cases these systems coexisted with the above-mentioned

    writing systems. Texts such as the epic of Sundiata (Mali)

    or the Abuja Chronicle (Nigeria) are good examples of

    works which were originally in this mode.

    See Johnson, Hale and Belcher, African Oral Epics, 1997

    B.

    SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES ON ANCIENT AFRICA

    Internet Sourcebook (Paul Halsall)

    C.

    Here are some relevant books on various aspects of African Civilization:

    AFRICAN CIVILIZATION

    1. Derek Welsby and Julie Anderson, Sudan:Ancient Treasures, British Museum Press,2004.
    2. Derek Welsby,The Kingdom of Kush(1998).

      A few outrageous statements but generally informative.

    3. Miriam Ma'At-Ka-Re Monges: Kush-The Jewel of Nubia (1997)

      Extensive historiography.

    4. Richard Poe,Black Spark, White Fire(1998)

      Great insights into Ancient Egypt

    5. Christos Evangeliou,The Hellenic Philosophy: Between Europe,Asia and AFRICA(1997)

      (Illuminating, non-eurocentric view of Africa in the Ancient World)

    6. Jacob Carruthers,Intellectual Warfare

      (Parts 1&11 are extremely relevant with respect to methodology)

    7. William Martin and Michael West:Out of One, Many Africas, 1999

    8. Martin Bernal: Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (1989)

      David Chioni Moore(ed) BLACK ATHENA WRITES BACK/Martin Bernal Responds to his critics, Duke Univesity Press, 2001.

    9. Graham Connah:African Civilizations-Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa(2002)

    10. Basil Davidson: Africa in History (1995)

    11. George Ayittey: Indigenous African Institutions (1991)

    12. Sandra Barnes: Africa's Ogun:Old World and New Systems of Thought (1997)

    13. John Henrik Clarke, New Dimensions in African History (1991)

    14. C.Hilliard: Intellectual Traditions of Pre-colonial Africa (1997)

    15. Diedre Badejo: Seegesi- The Elegant Deity of Wealth and Power and Femininity (1995)

    16. Ayele Bekerie: Ethiopic- An African Writing System(1997)

    17. Cheikh Anta Diop: Civilization or Barbarism (1991)

    18. Molefi Asante, Classical African Civilization (1994)

    19. Carlos Moore et alia: African Presence in the Americas(1995)

    20. Ivan Van Sertima: Blacks in Science (1992)

    21. The Art of African Fashion(1998)

      Scholarly analysis accompanied by exquisite illustrations of African fabric, design and fashion

    22. Mary Kolawole,Womanism and African Consciousness (1997)
    23. Maulana Karenga, ODU IFA- The Ethical Teachings (1999)

    24. Chapurukha Kusimba, The Rise and Fall of Swahili States(1999)

      Peter Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa,Oxford University Press,2002.

      The strength of this text is not in its wonderful illustrations of African structures.

      AFRICAN SCIENCE/INDIGENOUS AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE

    25. Gloria T.Emeagwali (ed): Historical Development of Science and Technology in Nigeria,1993

    26. Gloria T. Emeagwali (ed) African Systems of Science,Technology and Art, Karnak, London,1993
    27. Gloria T.Emeagwali(ed) Science and Technology in African History,1992
    28. Charles Finch: The Star of Deep Beginnings-

      The Genesis of African Science and Technology, Khenti,1998

      ISBN 0-962944432

    29. Tirfe Mammo, The Paradox of African Poverty: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge,

      Traditional Practices and Local Institutions-The Case of Ethiopia, Red Sea Press, 1999

    30. Catherine Odora Hoppers, Indigenous Knowledge and the Integration of Knowledge Systems,

      New Africa Books, 2002

      Metallurgy

    31. Peter Schmidt(ed) The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production,1997
    32. Peter Schmidt: Iron Technology in East Africa,1997
    33. Randi Haland, African Iron working: Ancient and Traditional, 1986
    34. F.J Kense, Traditional African IronWorking

    35. Patrick McNaughton, The Mande Blacksmiths, Indiana University Press, 1993

    36. Pride of Men, Ironworking in 19th century West Central Africa, 1999

    37. Timothy Jenkins and K. Om-ra Seti,

      Black Futurists in the Information Age, Kmt Publications, San Francisco, 1997

    38. Jay Hauser (ed), African Sites- Archaeology in the Caribbean,Markus Wiener, 1999

      Mathematics

    39. Ron Eglash,African Fractals,1999
    40. Paulus Gerdes, Geometry from Africa,Mathematical and Educational Explorations, 1999
    41. Paulus Gerdes: Lusona-Geometrical recreations of Africa,1997
    42. Paulus Gerdes: Women and Geometry in Southern Africa,1997
    43. Claudia Zaslavsky:Africa Counts-Number and Pattern in African Culture,1997
    44. A.Powell and M.Frankenstein: Ethnomathematics:

      Challenging Eurocentrism in Maths Education,1997 (Africa-related chapters)

    45. AMUCHMA,

      Newsletter of the Commission on the History of Mathematics in Africa

    46. Hellen Verran, Science and an Africa Logic,University of Chicago Press, 2001

      Engineering/Building Technology

    47. P.J Darling: Archeology and History in Southern Nigeria: The Ancient Linear Earthworks of Benin and Ishan,1990
    48. Nnamdi Elleh: African Architecture:Evolution and Transformation,1996
    49. Jean Paul Bourdieu/T.Minh-ha Trinh: Drawn from African Dwellings, 1997

      50. African Traditional/Behavioral Medicine

    50. M. Akin Makinde: African Philosophy,Culture and Traditional Medicine,1988

    51. Gloria Waite:A History of Traditional Medicine and Health Care

      in Pre-Colonial East-Central Africa,1993

    52. Science in Africa,Utilizing Africa's Genetic Affluence through Natural

      Products Research and Development

      (American Association for the Advancement of Science)

    53. Edward Bruce Bynum,Transcending Psychoneurotic Disturbances:

      New Approaches in Psychospirituality and Personality Development, 1993

    54. Edward Bruce Bynum, Families and the Interpretation of Dreams:

      Awakening the Intimate Web, 1993.

    55. Edward Bruce Bynum, The African Unconscious:

      Roots of Modern Psychology and Ancient Mysticism, 1999

    56. Ismail Hussein Abdalla: Islam, Medicine and Practitioners in Northern Nigeria,1997
    57. Malidoma Some,The Healing Wisdom of Africa, 1999
    58. Malidoma Some, Of Water and the Spirit,

      Penguin, 1995

    59. Abayomi Sofowora, Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa,

      John Wiley and Sons, 1984

    60. George Simpson,Yoruba Religion and Medicine in Ibadan,

      Ibadan University Press, Lagos, 1980

    61. Keto Mshigeni (ed) Traditional Medicinal Plants,

      Proceedings of the International Conference on Traditional Medicinal Plants,

      Dar ES Salaam University Press,1991

      T. Carlson et al. 'Case study of Medicinal Plant Research in Guinea,' Economic Botany, vol.55. 4. 2001

      62. On-line Newsletter of African Studies

      HIST 122

      122JapanChina

    Send comments to Dr Gloria Emeagwali,

    Professor of History and African Studies, CCSU

    "emeagwali@mail.ccsu.edu"

    Phone:860-832-2815

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